A-C

abbreviations

Avoid using abbreviations or acronyms that the reader won’t recognize, and spell it out when unsure. Always use periods in two letter abbreviations and professional titles, but otherwise the trend is not to use periods.

Examples: PLNU, GPA, MBA

B.A., M.A., Ph.D., U.S., Dr., Mrs., Gov., Rev., Lt. Gov.

acronyms

Unless it is a well-known acronym (like NASA, CIA, FBI), always spell out the full name the first time with the acronym following in parenthesis. The acronym is used alone in all subsequent references.

Example: Point Loma’s Center for Justice and Reconciliation (CJR) will sponsor a welcome dinner for all new members this Friday. This year’s CJR student president is Jane Brown.

ages

Always use figures for people (but not for inanimates).

Example: The student is 21 years old.
The 6-year-old boy found a dog.
The athlete is in her 40s.
The building is nine years old.

Place commas around ages when listing ages of multiple people.

Example: Dr. Alexander and his wife Denise have three daughters: Kayla, 13, Danielle, 8, and Julia, 3.

ampersand (&)

Avoid unless used in an official name .

Example: Barnes & Noble, School of Theology & Christian Ministry

apostrophes

For possession, add an apostrophe and the letter “s” to singular words ( church’s ).

Singular common nouns ending in -s take an apostrophe followed by the letter “s” ( campus’s ) unless followed by a word starting with “s” ( campus’ students).

Proper names ending in -s take only an apostrophe ( Jesus’ life ).

Plurals ending in -s take only an apostrophe ( 15 students’ cars).

Possessive adjectives do not take apostrophes ( The bird made its nest ) but contractions do ( It’s the first day of school).

capitalization

university: only capitalize when used in the proper name of a school ( Point Loma Nazarene University, University of Oregon).

The following are examples to serve as a general guide:

• San Diego County
• city of San Diego
• county of Los Angeles
• state of California
• U.S. Department of State
• California State
• The state is experiencing a surplus.
• Earth (planet)
• southern California
• North Africa
• Eastern philosophy
• eastern U.S.
• African American, Asian American, Mexican American, Native American, Hispanic, Chicano, Latino, black, white
  
  

comma usage

In simple lists, and in complex lists, a comma is needed before the conjunction.

Example: Homecoming will feature music, food, and athletics.

People describe Point Loma as warm, intellectual and inspiring.

Example: He was a hard worker, an avid painter, and a loving father.
The professor was a favorite because she encouraged creativity, stimulated relevant and
controversial discussions, and hosted a dinner in her home at the end of the semester.

dashes and hyphens

Use an en dash with spaces on both sides in sentences to indicate an abrupt change in thought or to set off a series within a phrase. The en dash can also be used in attribution.

Example: The department’s focus – lifetime partnership – has appealed to many applicants.

Prayer, praise, fellowship – chapel offers students all of this and more.

“Point Loma is the best!” – A.G. Pennypacker, sophomore

Use hyphens only in compound words, large numbers that must be written out, and scores.

Example: He was a first-year student.

She wants a full-time job after she graduates.

The real problems of the day are socio-economic.

PLNU won the game 59-54.

Twenty-five students went on the mission trip.

dates

He was born on July 5, 1984, in Boston.
November 15, 1990, was. . . .
She has been teaching since September 2001.
The program is scheduled for 8:30 p.m., Tuesday, Dec. 12, 2000.

Do not use 1st, 2nd, etc., with dates:

Example : May 31, January 2, etc. (not May 31st, January 2nd, etc.)

Specify the year only if not the current calendar year: Example: Megan graduated in December 2005. Jake graduated in May.

decades

ellipsis ( ... )

Treat an ellipsis as a three-letter word; there are no spaces between the periods, but there are spaces on either side of the ellipsis.

Use an ellipsis to indicate the deletion of one or more words, but don’t use them at the beginning and end of direct quotes.

Example: The speaker ended the Commencement speech by telling the graduates, “Take what you have learned ... and use it to teach others.”

exclamation point

geographic regions

Lowercase names of nations or states unless they are a part of a proper name or are used to designate a politically divided nation.

Example: northern California

North Carolina

southern France

the western United States

But: Northern Ireland, Northwest Territories

hyphens

Use hyphens only in compound words, large numbers that must be written out, and scores.

Example: He was a first-year student.

She wants a full-time job after she graduates.

The real problems of the day are socio-economic.

PLNU won the game 59-54.

Twenty-five students went on the mission trip.

In compound modifiers (two or more words that express a single concept), a hyphen is used when the modifier precedes the noun or comes after a form of the “to be” verb. Most modifiers that would be hyphenated before a noun are not hyphenated if they occur after the noun.

Example: a greenish-blue tie, a full-time job

The tie is greenish-blue. Her job is full-time.

The tie, a greenish blue, is his favorite. She works full time.

i.e./e.g.

Both are always followed by a comma.

Examples: The group traveled to several countries in sub-Saharan Africa (e.g., Kenya, Uganda,
Tanzania and Ethiopia).

The group traveled around the Horn of Africa (i.e., the east coast of sub-Saharan Africa).

italics

months

Examples: The fall semester begins in August.
We will graduate in December 2007.

These months are abbreviated when accompanied by a date: Jan., Feb., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov. and Dec. Always spell out March, April, May, June and July.

Examples: The meeting will be on Monday, Oct. 4, 2003.
Commencement will be held on May 18, 2002.

numbers

Use figures for numbers 10 or greater; spell out zero up to and including nine.
Example: one, eight, nine, 10, 21, 105, 2,436

Use the same rules for ordinal numbers: second, ninth, 10 ^th , 25 ^th , 169 ^th .

Use a comma with figures of 1,000 and above (except dates): 5,000, 42,000.

Exceptions and additional rules:

• Use figures for degrees (temperature or longitudinal).
• Spell out any number at the beginning of a sentence: Twenty years ago today, the doctor...
• Use figures when referring to academic credit: The student earned 2.5 hours of credit.
• Numbers may be mixed in the same sentence or paragraph: PLNU had two administrators and 14 professors share their work.
• In scientific text, physical quantities (distances, lengths, or areas) should be expressed in figures; in ordinary text, such quantities should be treated according to the rules above.
• Ages always use figures: The boy is 5 years old; the 9-year-old girl lives here.
• Use figures for course numbers, scores, percentages, compound numbers and decimal fractions.
• Plus mark: avoid it (say 30-plus, not 30+).
• Fractions: Spell out amounts less than one, using hyphens between the words: two-thirds, seven-sixteenths, etc.

See also: telephone numbers

percent

Example: His GPA went down 0.4 percent.

plurals

In words ending in -ch, -s, -sh, -ss, -x and -z, add -es to form the plural: churches, lenses, marshes, glasses, boxes, buzzes.

Words ending in -is, change the -is to -es: analyses, theses, oases , crises .

Words ending in -y (if preceded by a consonant or “qu”), change the “y” to “i” and add -es: armies, ladies, soliloquies . Otherwise, add -s: boys, plays . (For proper names ending in -y, simply add -s: Kellys, Murphys .)

Words ending in -o (if preceded by a consonant), add -es: heroes, echoes. (Pianos is an exception.)

Words ending in -f, change the “f” to “v” and add -es: hooves, loaves. (Roofs is an exception.)

Omit the apostrophe from plurals: 1990s, M.A.s and Ph.D.s

Latin plurals (singular/plural): criterion/criteria, medium/media, symposium/symposia

Some words that are plural still take a singular verb: faculty, staff, everyone.

Example: The faculty is meeting today to discuss next year’s curriculum.

Everyone wants to attend the symposium.

possessives

Add an apostrophe and “s” to singular nouns that don’t end in “s”: girl’s dog, Mr. Robert’s car

Add an apostrophe and “s” to singular common nouns that end in “s” unless the next word begins in “s” too: the witness’s report, the witness’ story.

Only use an apostrophe with singular proper names that end in “s”: Jesus’ life

Only use an apostrophe if a word doesn’t end in “s” but ends in an “s” sound and is followed by a word beginning with “s”: for appearance’ sake. If the next word does not begin with “s,” use an apostrophe and “s.”

The possessive is used after the last word if ownership is joint: Joe and Jane’s new car. If the objects are individually owned, the possessive is used after both words: Shirley’s and Karen’s daughters.

The possessive is used as follows when the focus is on the activity instead of the person: Olivia’s biting her nails is a terrible habit.

quotations and block quotations

The period and comma always go within the quotation marks. The dash, semicolon, question mark and exclamation point go inside when they apply to the quoted matter but outside when they apply to the entire sentence.

Example: When asked about her involvement with human rights issues, Mrs. Jennings responded with a question of her own: “Rather than asking why, shouldn’t the question be why not?”

How are we to respond to the president’s statement “fight fire with fire”?

When a quotation from a person is longer than one paragraph, use quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph but only at the end of the last paragraph.

A block quotation is used when quoting a printed source (journal, book or article) that is longer than four lines. A block quotation is not enclosed by quotation marks and is indented two tabs on the left. Quoted matter included within a block quotation should be enclosed in double quotation marks.

Example: Martin Luther King’s famous speech of 1963 was based not only human justice and personal experience, but on biblical truth:

I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today! … I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, and every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plain, and the crooked places will be made straight; “and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed and all flesh shall see it together.” … I have a dream today!

semicolon

Example: The test will cover six chapters; I’ll be studying all night.

Use a semicolon between two independent clauses when they are joined by a conjunction, such as “however,” “nevertheless” or “therefore.”
Example: I’m extremely over-committed; nevertheless, I will write the article for the paper.

Use a semicolon in a serial list when separate elements of the list contain commas:
She had two sons, Joe and Bob; three daughters, Alexis, Joy and Lauren; and four grandchildren, Noah, Elizabeth, George and Cindy.

telephone numbers

Use parentheses for the area code: (619) 849-7231

For toll-free numbers, long-distance calls and in cases where it is required locally, do not use the prefix numeral 1. Example: (800) 555-1000.

If extension numbers are given: x. 2, x. 364, x. 4071.

titles of books, plays, movies, songs, etc.

Capitalization, italics, and quotation marks in titles of works. Articles, prepositions, and coordinate conjunctions should be lowercase in titles unless they are the first or last words; lowercase the to in infinitives:

Catcher in the Rye
A Rage to Live

Published books, pamphlets, newspapers, periodicals, titles of long poems, plays, major musical works, paintings, records, compact discs, audio- and videocassettes, television programs, and movies are capitalized and set in italics:

• a story in the San Diego Union-Tribune
• an article in Time
• Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man
• the film Garden State
• the television program Lost
• Don Giovanni by Mozart
• Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa
• Great Expectations by Dickens

Titles of articles, songs, short poems, and parts of books are capitalized and enclosed in quotation marks:

• “Amazing Grace”
• “Dead Leaves and the Dirty Ground”
• The article is entitled “The Post-Modern Itch.”

Commas and periods are set inside of quotation marks. Question marks and semicolons are set outside of quotation marks (unless part of quotation):

His poem, “Night and Day,” was. . . .
Did you like the article “How to Find Your True Self”?